It’s All in the Mind: PETTLEP-Based Imagery and Sports Performance

It’s All in the Mind: PETTLEP-Based Imagery and Sports Performance

Smith, D., Wright, C., Allsopp, A., & Westhead, H. (2007). It’s All in the Mind: PETTLEP-Based Imagery and Sports Performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 19(1), 80-92. doi:10.1080/10413200600944132

by Rachel Webb

The article, It’s All in the Mind: PETTLEP-Based Imagery and Sports Performance, examines two different studies that support the effects of PETTLEP-based imagery over those of more traditional interventions. The PETTLEP acronym relates to the practical components that should be implemented when using imagery with an athlete, namely: physical, environmental, task, timing, learning, emotion, and a perspective component (Smith, Wright. Allsopp, & Westhead, 2007). The majority of research done on imagery is executed while the individual is very relaxed, seated, and going through the imagery in solitude. This research argues that imagery can be more effective when it includes all of the senses, engaging the kinesthetic sensations that are associated with the performance being imagined. To break down the model we look at each component, the first being environment. Environment refers to the physical environment in which the imagery is performed, for example doing imagery on a grass field if you are a soccer player. The task component should be performer specific and as closely related to the physical performance of the task as possible, including the same thoughts, feelings, and actions. Coorelatedwith the task component is the timing, which should be close to the same pace as the performance. The learning component is a more adaptive aspect of imagery over time. As the athlete gets better at a skill they no longer rely heavily on imaging mechanics of the movement, but can focus on the feel of the movement when this skill becomes automatic in practice. One of the greatest links found in this model of imagery that has changed the outcome for sport performance is the emotional component. Imagery aims to achieve optimal functional equivalence and in order to do so they must experience the emotional responses and meaning that he or she attaches to the particular performance during imagery. The final perspective component is a fairly uncontrollable trait that refers to the way the imagine in our minds is viewed, as an internal or external image. We can think of internal as being the one in action in your image or an external view of watching yourself from afar.

As previously mentioned this study looks at the effects of imagery in two studies, each study focusing on different populations, age groups (varsity athletes v. children) and different motor tasks (hockey penalty flicks and gymnastics jumping on a beam). The results of the first study give a clear indication that all forms of imagery were effective in enhancing performance, both traditional and the PETTLEP- based model, but the latter was proven to be the most effective intervention of the two. Interestingly, there was a significant impact on the athletes’ using imagery in the position in which they would perform the task, standing up. Standing versus being seated elicited a different afferent feedback and kinesthetic sensation that achieved a greater functional equivalence to the actual performance they were imagining. In the second study it was further supported that with the diverse tasks and participate populations the PETTLEP model was effective regardless of the age, level of competition, or sporting task involved. In many cases of overtraining or injury that we see today, using this model of imagery can increase the players ability to substitute the physical activity and still progress in their performance abilities ad techniques. This study not only reveals the effectiveness of PETTLEP-based imagery, but supports that the more components used the more impactful this intervention becomes for an athletes performance.

On May 30, 2016

Athletes’ Use of Mental Skills During Sport Injury Rehabilitation

Athletes’ Use of Mental Skills During Sport Injury Rehabilitation

Arvinen-Barrow, M., Clement, D., Hamson-Utley, J. J., Zakrajsek, R. A., Sae-Mi, L., Kamphoff, C., & Martin, S. B. (2015). Athletes’ Use of Mental Skills During Sport Injury Rehabilitation. Journal Of Sport Rehabilitation24(2), 189-197.

by Rachel Webb

The article, Athletes Use of Mental Skills During Injury Rehabilitation has a very significant impact because it focused not on coming up with something new in the sport psychology world, but addressing the field of sports and athletes to find what has been working for them. Specifically it looks at different sports and how these athletes are using mental skills throughout injury rehabilitation (Arvinen-Barrow, Clement, Hamson-Utley, Zakrajsek, Sae-Mi, Kamphoff, & Martin, 2015). The authors focused on how many athletes across cultures of the United States, UK, and Finland populations use mental skills during injury rehabilitation, who taught them these skills, which ones they specifically used, and ultimately if they felt that it increased their recovery speed. It was unfortunate to find that only 27.6% of the 1,283 athletes actually used these skills (specifically imagery, goal setting, and self-talk) and of those athletes the majority were US athletes (Arvinen-barrow, et al 2015). It was also acknowledged that sport psychology consultants that contributed to the teaching of mental skills were less than 3%, allowing this study to show we not only need more access to sport psychologist across cultures. Through this study it is support that not only do we need more consultants in the field given that mental skills are underutilized by injured athletes. Athletic trainers should also be trained more proficiently on the effectiveness of mental skills associated with rehabilitation, since currently these are the individuals with the most access to athletes during this crucial period.

On May 30, 2016

Does grit influence sport-specific engagement and perceptual-cognitive expertise in elite youth soccer?

Does grit influence sport-specific engagement and perceptual-cognitive expertise in elite youth soccer?

Larkin, P., O’Connor, D., & Williams, A. M. (2015). Does grit influence sport-specific engagement and perceptual-cognitive expertise in elite youth soccer?. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 1-10.

Mentioned:

Duckworth, A. L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M. D., & Kelly, D. R. (2007). Grit: Perserverance and passion for long-term goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 1087-1101

by Rachel Webb

In sport elite performance there are many variables that come into play when understanding what it takes to have to the skills and abilities to reach this level. Research has supported aspects such as technical ability, physical fitness, personality characteristics, and perceptual-cognitive expertise as being involved to some degree in determining the differences between subelite and elite athletes. An aspect of personality, known as grit, has been given little attention in the equation of elite athletes and this current study undertakes this trait to examine the potential influences it may have, specifically looking at youth elite soccer players. The researches looked at personality psychology to explore the construct of grit. Grit ultimately entails working towards a challenging goal while sustaining the effort and passion for the activity despite any hardships, slumps, or disappointments throughout the experience (Larkin, O’Connor, & Williams, 2015). Athletes can also manage this type of perseverance towards their goals without feedback or immediate recognition with high levels of grit. According to supporting research grit has been recognized for its potential to predict retention within a program, but there has been limited investigation on how grit may influence not just retention but the actual performance (Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, & Kelly, 2007). From a sporting perspective there has been a clear correlation between perceptual-cognitive skills such as decision-making, situational probability assessment, and pattern recognition, and the hours accumulated for sport-specific activity. Given this relationship, this study proposed that gritter players would have accumulated more sport-specific hours of activity, thus performing better on the perceptual-cognitive skills which is a know factor of successful elite athletes.

This was a novel approach in exploring the personality trait of girt within a sporting realm and was supportive of pervious research, that gritter players are in fact more likely to sustain long periods of engagement to soccer-specific training which allowed them to achieve their performance goals. It also identified that the way in which players obtain indirect involvement with the sport such as watching games or playing video games (Larkin, O’Connor, & Williams, 2015). With the indirect and direct hours that were sport-specific, gritter athletes accumulated approximately 1,000 extra hours of soccer involvement, potentially benefitting their performance with this increase in sport-specific activity. Furthermore, there was a significant main effect for perceptual-cognitive performance. This matched the prediction that the researchers made, that players high in grit outperformed the less gritty players in the perceptual-cognitive activity involving decision-making and situational probability. It is implied that based on this study, gritter players will invest more time within soccer-specific activities, which in turn may positively influence their perceptual-cognitive performance. The initial evidence provided through this study has set the stage for further speculation on the idea that achievement and success are products of talent and effort. When there are two athletes displaying the same level of talent, can it be presumed that the athlete with high levels of grit will put in more effort, set long-term goals, and devote more time and focus to their sport. This latter athlete according to this study has provided us with evidence supporting the differences in the most elite athletes and what it takes in all domains of your skills or personality to achieve this stature.

On May 30, 2016

Self-talk and competitive sport performance

Self-talk and competitive sport performance

Although the effectiveness of self-talk strategies has been widely reviewed and is gaining more support through this research, there is still a gap when looking at the effects it has on competitive sports. Studies discussed in this article review the multiple facets that self-talk can be most useful in which includes the level of play, the sport, and the type of implementation (Hatzigeorgiadis, Galanis, Zourbanos, & Theodorakis, 2014). The research distinguishes the different types of self-talk that can foster an enhanced motor or fine skills development and the benefits of self-talk on the psychological crisis of choking in performance.

Since there has been only one other study done on self-talk in the competitive realm, this article looks to extend this line of research and investigate the effectiveness of a self-talk intervention program on a competitive sport performance in young swimmers. This will also include the training of self-talk given that there has been more success in training self-talk with the involvement of athletes developing these plans, resulting in an increase intrinsic interest and enhanced motivation. Along with the focus of involving the athlete in developing the plan and key factors in implementing appropriate and adequate training, the theoretical underpinnings that create an effective plan per individual. Ultimately, the environment of competitive sports is complex but this study contributes further to the effectiveness of self-talk strategies that can facilitate an increase in sport performance. Further direction of effective self-talk is reviewed as well as the limitations regarding the added factors of doing a field experiment with less control.

On June 13, 2016   

A new theoretical perspective for understanding how coaches learn to coach

A new theoretical perspective for understanding how coaches learn to coach

Werthner, P., & Trudel, P. (2006). A new theoretical perspective for understanding how coaches learn to coach. Sport psychologist, 20(2), 198.
Mentioned: Moon, J.A. (2004). A handbook of reflective and experintial learning: Theory and practice. London: Routledge Falmer

by Rachel Webb
The purpose of the material presented is to more thoroughly investigate the way in which coaches learn how to be coaches. Authors Werthner and Trudel use a new theoretical perspective that looks at a generic view of learning as applied to elite coaches (2006).
Coaches must develop both a sport specific knowledge and a knowledge base about coaching, and the latter has shown to be effected by many aspects. There are two ways to view learning and according to Moon when coaches are subject to viewing learning as a network rather than building up a wall, they will be able to build upon their cognitive structuring rather than taking an inactive role in retaining new coaching information (Moon, 2004). This network is described as the knowledge and emotions resulting in a cognitive structure that represents what the coaches know at any given point in time. This view allows coaches to accept the learning process as a process of changing conceptions rather than an accumulation of information. This research is especially important because this cognitive structure acts as a guide as to what coaches will choose to pay attention to and what they choose to learn.

With that distinction being made the article explores Moon’s views of learning, which includes three types of learning situations that elicit how coaches may develop their coaching perspective and why many of their paths are so distinct. The learning situations range from mediated (formal learning), unmediated (external experiences, and internal learning situation (no new information). The network view of coaches’ learning processes has the potential to provide a way to see coach development from the coaches’ perspective and can increase our ability to understand the particular path of different coaches. This study stresses the importance of how the material is presented to coaches, what the coaches cognitive structure is already made up of, and it draws attention to the ways we can use the three learning situations to foster the development specific to each coach. There are numerous inferences that can now be drawn after this extensive study done on elite coaches. It is important to recognize the support being made for the differences in coaches’ cognitive structures and how their internal experiences will influence what they are learning and choose to incorporate in their coaching down the line.

On June 13, 2016  

Controlling emotions in sport

Controlling emotions in sport

Given the large effect that emotion has been known to have on sports performance, this article aims to provide not only extensive support for the relationship between emotion and performance, but also provides strategies and techniques to enhance emotional control. The material in this article is largely based on Lazarus’ cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion, emphasizing that emotions occur when the individual appraises encounters with the environment as having either a negative or positive significance (meaning) for them and thus effects the motivation behind behavior (Jones, 2003). Since an emotion must happen as a response to something, research has made the simple connection to the cognitive process that will determine the relevance of the event in order to elicit the appropriate emotion for that individual. The research speaks to both a primary and secondary appraisal, primary looking at how stimuli relates to their goal and secondary appraisal explaining how they interpret their ability to cope with the stimuli. Jones also reviews the characteristics of emotional responses as revealed in three main elements. Physiological changes, which look at the level of arousal you are in, subjective experience or your personal interpretation of the event, and action tendencies, which are behaviors, elicited by the attempt to cope with the event.

Further discussion on the suggestion that an individual’s emotional state could influence motivation along with physical and cognitive functioning is presented. Athletes aim for an optimal emotional state for performance in order to generate the energy needed to preform and maintain the effort needed for a task, thus suggesting that dysfunctional emotional levels may result in an insufficient amount of energy (or motivation) to preform. In that same venue, cognitive resources can become limited as a result of other emotions such as worrying. This use of mental resources can either help an athlete allocate more energy towards a task, or drain them of the energy needed to be successful.

All optimal levels of emotion and need for cognitive resources is specialized to each individual athlete. For example a football player may need the excess emotion of anger to increase their strength and to complete a 10 second play, whereas a golfer may feel their fine motor skills being impaired by such high levels of anger because of the physiological and cognitive effect anger can have. The techniques discussed are extensions of the cognitive-behavioral approach, suggesting that our cognitive perceptions intermixed with our emotions will dictate our behavior, behavior being a good or bad performance. Jones examines an extensive list of strategies to provide emotional control for athletes comprised of self-statement modification, imagery, Socratic dialogue, corrective experiences self-analysis, didactic approach, storytelling metaphors and poetry, reframing, cognitive paradox, and problem-solving skills (2003). Although there has been clear evidence to support Lazarus’s cognitive-motivational-relational theory, it is suggested for future applied research to evaluate the techniques and their direct effects on individual athletes or the effects on teams as a whole.

On June 13, 2016 

The development and maintenance of mental toughness in the world’s best performers

The development and maintenance of mental toughness in the world’s best performers

Connaughton, D., Hanton, S., & Jones, G. (2010). The development and maintenance of mental toughness in the world’s best performers. The Sport Psychologist24(2), 168-193.

Also referenced:  Jones, G., Hanton, S., & Connaughton, D. (2007). A framework of mental toughness in the world’s best performers. The Sport Psychologist, 21, 243–264.

by Rachel Webb

When we think about what an athlete possesses in order to be successful, often times the term mentally tough is attributed to the makeup of the athlete. Mental toughness has been defined as being a natural or developed psychological edge that inadvertently allows athletes to cope better than their opponents with the demands or pressures that come with performance. This is not the only support definition of what it means to be mentally tough and further more how to obtain that psychological edge. This study looks at the experiences of eleven superelite participants, which included athletes, coaches, and sport psychologists, and interviewed then regarding the development and maintenance of mental toughness. Researchers not only found that mental toughness progresses through four different stages of ones career, one being a maintenance stage, but also the multiple factors that each participant felt supported the development of mental toughness. These factors include skill mastery, competitiveness, successes, international competitive experience, education, use of psychological skills, access to an understanding social support network, and reflective practices. (Connaughton, Hanton, & Jones, 2010).

In order to identify these factors and understand how to develop this necessary psychological advancement, this study first looked at the mental toughness framework dimensions (4) and subcomponents (13) developed in earlier studies that support (Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2007). They then interviewed these same participants for the current study, aligning their questions based on the original four dimension model. The results as previously stated were the different factors that were all supported through each participant’s interview and personal experiences in achieving this superelite performance level. The study also provided recommendations for increasing the ability for individuals to develop a sense of mental toughness. Some points of recommendation include the need to develop education programs for coaches, building belief in performers through successes in training or competition, setting challenging goals, and enabling good communication between athletes and their coaches, sport psychologist, and realms of social support (Connaughton, Hanton, & Jones, 2010). In sum, this study address amore through understanding of the mechanisms that are responsible for developing and this maintaining mental toughness through the varies stages of your career.

On June 13, 2016

What is This Thing Called Mental Toughness? Investigation of Elite Sport Performers

What is This Thing Called Mental Toughness? Investigation of Elite Sport Performers

by Rachel Webb

The article, What is This Thing Called Mental Toughness? Investigation of Elite Sport Performers I think is a huge asset to the sport psychology world because of the application that can come from the results. The study consisted of using 10 international performers that were apart of either a focus group or they were asked questions one on one and requested to give opened ended answers (Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2002). Specifically, this study was addressing two issues that encompass mental toughness which are, the definition of mental toughness as well as what attributes contribute to being mentally tough overall. Author Graham Jones identifies a total of 12 attributes that range from self-belief and motivation to ability to focus regarding performance and lifestyle related choices.

What this literature provided us with is insight into elite performers and their common definition of what it takes to be truly mentally tough. The definition of mental toughness according to Jones (2002) research is “having the natural or developed psychological edge that enables you to generally cope better than your opponents with the many demands (competition, training, lifestyle) that sport places on a performer”. Specifically, be more consistent and better than your opponents in remaining determined, focused, confident, and in control under pressure” (p 209). As previously mentioned there were 12 attributes derived from his research that were than ranked as those most key roles in ebeing mentall tough so here I want to list the top three. “Having an unshakable self belief in your ability to achieve your competition goals” followed by “bouncing back from performance set-backs as a result of increased determination to succeed”, and finally “ having an unshakable self-belief that you possess unique qualities and abilities that make you better than you opponents” (Jones et al, 2002). These definitions and attributes provided seem to highlight the association of mental toughness with the general ability to cope with adversity whether this is apart of or separate from your sport performance, and this seems to be the important aspect of what we can gather from the literature to date.

Jones, G. (2002). What Is This Thing Called Mental Toughness? An Investigation of Elite Sport Performers. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. 14(3), 205-218. Doi: 10.1080/10413200290103509

On May 30, 2016