Developmental consulting in a professional football academy: The 5Cs coaching efficacy program.

Developmental consulting in a professional football academy: The 5Cs coaching efficacy program.

Reference:

Harwood, C. (2008). Developmental consulting in a professional football academy: The 5Cs coaching efficacy program. Sport Psychologist, 22(1), 109.

by Rachel Webb

The purpose of this article was to explore the implementation of the 5Cs coaching efficacy program into a professional football (soccer) academy in Great Britain. This program was inclusive to coaches, parents, and the athletes as well. The 5Cs of football include commitment, communication, concentration, control, and confidence. This study was done over a four-month period and the objective of this program was to enhance coach’s efficacy in shaping the positive psychological and interpersonal skills in the young players (Harwood, 2008). Harwood identifies the unique and untapped potential of sport psychology and through this program wanted to increase the overall awareness and application throughout the academy he was working with. Many people can attest that the specialization of sports is starting at younger ages due to the competitiveness and commitment necessary to build to an appropriate skill level, and this particular culture is extremely present within English football. Development of these young players is crucial due to the unique scenario that many players are being scouted and then signing for professional clubs as young as 8 years old. Another objective of this multidimensional program was to gear their focus to shaping the psychosocial competencies and performance-enhancement skills that are appropriate for each player’s stage of development. In agreement with Harwood, the impact this program has on positive youth development is one of the strongest takeaways from this study, as he points out that this industry has a much deeper and more profound role to play in youth sport (and youth-coach education) compare to other stages of life.

Throughout the study Harwood assesses both the players and coaches on their behavior, responses, and perceptions of efficacy. This was done before, during, and after the intervention, which entailed workshops, working strategies, and training of the 5C’s. Ultimately presented were methods by which coaches, players, and parents can be empowered toward achieving gains in this stage of development and increase their ability to use positive internal and external assets during the early stages of development. Results of this four-month program were reflected in the coaches’ enhanced belief behind their ability to have intentionality behind the employment of sport psychology with the youth they are working with. There was also an achievement of integrating psychological education and development into training sessions. This design of the program was purposely self-exploratory for coaches in the sense that by taking one C at a time and incorporating that, they could then fully understand the impact of each component. For instance, results revealed that with coaches’ implementation of commitment and communication, coaches then associated this with perceived elevations in players’ concentration levels, self-control, and self-confidence during those training sessions (Hardwood, 2008). Despite several limitations of this work it has been made obvious that working within an organization to impact the psychological and performance-enhancement skills of sport psychology vastly benefits all of the individuals involved. The final hopes of this study are to encourage the use of the 5 C’s training amongst other youths and for future practitioner to optimize the opportunity to work with young athletes psychological skill sets and the confidence of coaches in helping shape that development.

On May 30, 2016

Abstract 1

Abstract 1

Neurofeedback is a type of biofeedback that measures brain waves to produce a signal that can be used as feedback to teach self-regulation of brain function. This has been used with treatment of a number of clinical disorders, such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD/ADD) (Lubar, 2003), obsessive-compulsive disorder (Hammond, 2003), seizures (Sternum, 2000), and substance abuse (Burkett, Cummins, Dickson, & Skolnick, 2005; Saxby & Peniston, 1995).

In this article the discussion is centered on using this correlation of enhancing a brains neuro function to increase performance in athletes. Many competitive athletes would benefit from an increase in brain activity such as improving attention/concentration, imagery, arousal level, and decreasing worry and rumination (Williams, 2006). An increase of the alpha waves of the brain that controls emotional, cognitive and psychological aspects, studies have shown that it enhances peak performance.

Every brain is different and therefore there is not a simple automated way to provide neurofeedback. This article discusses the necessity of a custom assessment of each athlete in relation to the sport to properly evaluate ways to enhance peak performance.

On May 30, 2016

It’s All in the Mind: PETTLEP-Based Imagery and Sports Performance

It’s All in the Mind: PETTLEP-Based Imagery and Sports Performance

Smith, D., Wright, C., Allsopp, A., & Westhead, H. (2007). It’s All in the Mind: PETTLEP-Based Imagery and Sports Performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 19(1), 80-92. doi:10.1080/10413200600944132

by Rachel Webb

The article, It’s All in the Mind: PETTLEP-Based Imagery and Sports Performance, examines two different studies that support the effects of PETTLEP-based imagery over those of more traditional interventions. The PETTLEP acronym relates to the practical components that should be implemented when using imagery with an athlete, namely: physical, environmental, task, timing, learning, emotion, and a perspective component (Smith, Wright. Allsopp, & Westhead, 2007). The majority of research done on imagery is executed while the individual is very relaxed, seated, and going through the imagery in solitude. This research argues that imagery can be more effective when it includes all of the senses, engaging the kinesthetic sensations that are associated with the performance being imagined. To break down the model we look at each component, the first being environment. Environment refers to the physical environment in which the imagery is performed, for example doing imagery on a grass field if you are a soccer player. The task component should be performer specific and as closely related to the physical performance of the task as possible, including the same thoughts, feelings, and actions. Coorelatedwith the task component is the timing, which should be close to the same pace as the performance. The learning component is a more adaptive aspect of imagery over time. As the athlete gets better at a skill they no longer rely heavily on imaging mechanics of the movement, but can focus on the feel of the movement when this skill becomes automatic in practice. One of the greatest links found in this model of imagery that has changed the outcome for sport performance is the emotional component. Imagery aims to achieve optimal functional equivalence and in order to do so they must experience the emotional responses and meaning that he or she attaches to the particular performance during imagery. The final perspective component is a fairly uncontrollable trait that refers to the way the imagine in our minds is viewed, as an internal or external image. We can think of internal as being the one in action in your image or an external view of watching yourself from afar.

As previously mentioned this study looks at the effects of imagery in two studies, each study focusing on different populations, age groups (varsity athletes v. children) and different motor tasks (hockey penalty flicks and gymnastics jumping on a beam). The results of the first study give a clear indication that all forms of imagery were effective in enhancing performance, both traditional and the PETTLEP- based model, but the latter was proven to be the most effective intervention of the two. Interestingly, there was a significant impact on the athletes’ using imagery in the position in which they would perform the task, standing up. Standing versus being seated elicited a different afferent feedback and kinesthetic sensation that achieved a greater functional equivalence to the actual performance they were imagining. In the second study it was further supported that with the diverse tasks and participate populations the PETTLEP model was effective regardless of the age, level of competition, or sporting task involved. In many cases of overtraining or injury that we see today, using this model of imagery can increase the players ability to substitute the physical activity and still progress in their performance abilities ad techniques. This study not only reveals the effectiveness of PETTLEP-based imagery, but supports that the more components used the more impactful this intervention becomes for an athletes performance.

On May 30, 2016

Athletes’ Use of Mental Skills During Sport Injury Rehabilitation

Athletes’ Use of Mental Skills During Sport Injury Rehabilitation

Arvinen-Barrow, M., Clement, D., Hamson-Utley, J. J., Zakrajsek, R. A., Sae-Mi, L., Kamphoff, C., & Martin, S. B. (2015). Athletes’ Use of Mental Skills During Sport Injury Rehabilitation. Journal Of Sport Rehabilitation, 24(2), 189-197.

by Rachel Webb

The article, Athletes Use of Mental Skills During Injury Rehabilitation has a very significant impact because it focused not on coming up with something new in the sport psychology world, but addressing the field of sports and athletes to find what has been working for them. Specifically it looks at different sports and how these athletes are using mental skills throughout injury rehabilitation (Arvinen-Barrow, Clement, Hamson-Utley, Zakrajsek, Sae-Mi, Kamphoff, & Martin, 2015). The authors focused on how many athletes across cultures of the United States, UK, and Finland populations use mental skills during injury rehabilitation, who taught them these skills, which ones they specifically used, and ultimately if they felt that it increased their recovery speed. It was unfortunate to find that only 27.6% of the 1,283 athletes actually used these skills (specifically imagery, goal setting, and self-talk) and of those athletes the majority were US athletes (Arvinen-barrow, et al 2015). It was also acknowledged that sport psychology consultants that contributed to the teaching of mental skills were less than 3%, allowing this study to show we not only need more access to sport psychologist across cultures. Through this study it is support that not only do we need more consultants in the field given that mental skills are underutilized by injured athletes. Athletic trainers should also be trained more proficiently on the effectiveness of mental skills associated with rehabilitation, since currently these are the individuals with the most access to athletes during this crucial period.

On May 30, 2016

Effective coaching in action: Observations of legendary collegiate basketball coach Pat Summitt

Effective coaching in action: Observations of legendary collegiate basketball coach Pat Summitt

Main Article:

Becker, A. J., & Wrisberg, C. A. (2008). Effective coaching in action: Observations of legendary collegiate basketball coach Pat Summitt. Sport Psychologist, 22(2), 197.

Referenced:

Tharp, R. G., & Gallimore, R. (1976). What a coach can teach a teacher. Psychology Today, 9(8), 75-78.

by Rachel Webb

The purpose of this study was to systematically evaluate the nonverbal and verbal practice behaviors between Pat Summit, the winningest collegiate basketball coach in NCAA Division 1 history, and her athletes. Over the course of six practices in the 2004-05 season, Pat Summit’s behaviors and interactions were video recorded and coded in this study. When we look at the development of a team and the individual athletes, it is understood that coaches spend a considerable amount of time conveying information to athletes to each their goals (Becker & Wrisberg, 2008). This communication can consist of general knowledge, correcting mistakes, reinforcing behavior, or motivating efforts. The current literature and what this study aims to support is that the effectiveness of the coaches and reaching said goals is dependent upon their ability to convey this information. The Arizona State University Observation Instrument was used to assess Pat Summitt’s coaching behaviors and each verbal/nonverbal interaction was placed into 1 of the 13 categories.

Consistent with previous research done on successful coaches, Summitt provided instruction more frequently than any other coaching behavior, roughly 48% of her communication was instruction. The most common form of instruction was concurrent, meaning technical and tactical information that was provided during the task thus allowing the players to actively adjust their behavior in the flow of the plays. Nearly half of Summitt’s interactions were directed toward individual players. It is argued that this type of attention to the players can also increase their confidence as shown in previous studies with Coach John Wooden (Tharp & Gallimore, 1976). The second most frequent type of feedback was praise (15%), which focused mostly on positive reinforcement for the expected behavior. The final interaction that has ignificant in this study was the use of hustle statements, concluding that Summitt’s success could be contributed to by the intense, game like practices she conducted.

Contrary to the expectancy theory that suggests coaches provide different treatment to high verse low expectancy athletes’, Summitt’s coaching behavior and perceptions of players’ abilities remained stable (Becker & Wrisberg, 2008). There was not a greater quality or quantity of feedback given to the high expectancy players from coach Summit therefore it may be assumed that the success of her team could be due to the effort she puts into developing the abilities of each of the players. Practically speaking, from this study we acknowledge the need for coaches to successful assess athletes, but through deliberate efforts they must be aware of how they communicate these assessments. Interventions can consist of using a journal to highlight coach athlete interactions, reviewing practice film, or involving assistant coaches in assessment. This study and the previous literature continue to support the importance of providing athletes with instructional feedback that is both detailed and relevant to the individual. Monitoring each player’s level of improvement can also aid in the process of development and further expand the ability to assess the needs of the players to help them reach their optimal level of performance.

On May 30, 2016

Does grit influence sport-specific engagement and perceptual-cognitive expertise in elite youth soccer?

Does grit influence sport-specific engagement and perceptual-cognitive expertise in elite youth soccer?

Larkin, P., O’Connor, D., & Williams, A. M. (2015). Does grit influence sport-specific engagement and perceptual-cognitive expertise in elite youth soccer?. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 1-10.

Mentioned:

Duckworth, A. L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M. D., & Kelly, D. R. (2007). Grit: Perserverance and passion for long-term goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 1087-1101

by Rachel Webb

In sport elite performance there are many variables that come into play when understanding what it takes to have to the skills and abilities to reach this level. Research has supported aspects such as technical ability, physical fitness, personality characteristics, and perceptual-cognitive expertise as being involved to some degree in determining the differences between subelite and elite athletes. An aspect of personality, known as grit, has been given little attention in the equation of elite athletes and this current study undertakes this trait to examine the potential influences it may have, specifically looking at youth elite soccer players. The researches looked at personality psychology to explore the construct of grit. Grit ultimately entails working towards a challenging goal while sustaining the effort and passion for the activity despite any hardships, slumps, or disappointments throughout the experience (Larkin, O’Connor, & Williams, 2015). Athletes can also manage this type of perseverance towards their goals without feedback or immediate recognition with high levels of grit. According to supporting research grit has been recognized for its potential to predict retention within a program, but there has been limited investigation on how grit may influence not just retention but the actual performance (Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, & Kelly, 2007). From a sporting perspective there has been a clear correlation between perceptual-cognitive skills such as decision-making, situational probability assessment, and pattern recognition, and the hours accumulated for sport-specific activity. Given this relationship, this study proposed that gritter players would have accumulated more sport-specific hours of activity, thus performing better on the perceptual-cognitive skills which is a know factor of successful elite athletes.

This was a novel approach in exploring the personality trait of girt within a sporting realm and was supportive of pervious research, that gritter players are in fact more likely to sustain long periods of engagement to soccer-specific training which allowed them to achieve their performance goals. It also identified that the way in which players obtain indirect involvement with the sport such as watching games or playing video games (Larkin, O’Connor, & Williams, 2015). With the indirect and direct hours that were sport-specific, gritter athletes accumulated approximately 1,000 extra hours of soccer involvement, potentially benefitting their performance with this increase in sport-specific activity. Furthermore, there was a significant main effect for perceptual-cognitive performance. This matched the prediction that the researchers made, that players high in grit outperformed the less gritty players in the perceptual-cognitive activity involving decision-making and situational probability. It is implied that based on this study, gritter players will invest more time within soccer-specific activities, which in turn may positively influence their perceptual-cognitive performance. The initial evidence provided through this study has set the stage for further speculation on the idea that achievement and success are products of talent and effort. When there are two athletes displaying the same level of talent, can it be presumed that the athlete with high levels of grit will put in more effort, set long-term goals, and devote more time and focus to their sport. This latter athlete according to this study has provided us with evidence supporting the differences in the most elite athletes and what it takes in all domains of your skills or personality to achieve this stature.

On May 30, 2016

Group dynamics in sports: an overview and recommendations on diagnostic and intervention.

Group dynamics in sports: an overview and recommendations on diagnostic and intervention.

Kleinert, J., Ohlert, J., Carron, B., Eys, M., Feltz, D., Harwood, C., & Sulprizio, M. (2012). Group dynamics in sports: an overview and recommendations on diagnostic and intervention. Sport Psychologist, 26(3), 412.

by Rachel Webb

This particular article is unique in nature because it uprooting all the different aspects that we think of when discussing group dynamics, but haven’t quite studied enough to be able to manipulate one aspect and affect the behavior of many. In Group Dynamics in Sports: An Overview and Recommendations on Diagnostic and Intervention, research is brought together to be reviewed by a board of individuals in the attempt to create a more collective ground work to move forward from. Within this consensus conference experts present first a rationale and full overview for using team-focused interventions. The second aspect is in support of how sport psychologists can enhance the interpersonal skills of a team, team climate, and the coach athlete relationship. Third, the “how” facets of sport psychologists building upon their rapport and trust with the team to accomplish the goals of the team. The final aspect is dedicated to the future of team-focused interventions and the efforts needed to bring a more theory-driven, ecologically valid treatment to the table (Kleinert, Ohlert, Carron, Eys, Feltz, Harwood, & Sulprizio, 2012).

Pulling from each of the four concentrations of this article, we can look at a couple of items that highlight the premise of each. Under the umbrella of “team” there are both youth and elite players and the task of understanding the psychosocial development needs that both groups must obtain at that level of competition to be successful. In sport it is recognized that there is an impact, both negative and positive, on interpersonal processes that occur within a team. Also determined within the literature was the most to least successful interventions, which focused on team goal setting (most), interpersonal relationships, adventure experiences, and broad development of group structure of role identification or cooperation (least). The correlations of these intervention on the team produced a small but positive effect on social cohesion and a large positive effect on performance a well as enhanced perceptions of individual satisfaction (Kleinert et al, 2012).

One of the most influential characters in the dynamic of a team is the coach. Facilitating an optimal coaching environment, grasping a coaching the coach position to cultivate this psychological development and motivational climate that will best suite the athletes is a long-term goal as a sport psychologist. The importance of educating and empowering the coaches’ knowledge base given the gaps, needs, and strengths of the team is essentially what the third aspect of this article confronts. This would be one area of focus for fostering success within a team. Different approaches for improving the quality of the coach athlete relationship are also discussed in the attempt to understand the perceptions of both the athlete and coach to underpin many group processes such as goal setting or role responsibility. For a sport psychologist, the “how” is detrimental to reaching the team or the coaching staff, so provided in this article is model of the situational components broken down that ultimately determine the procedure, approach, and trust-building tactics to maintain a relationship with the team (Kleinert et al, 2012). All four components of this article promote the importance of team-focused interventions and encourage the continued research on an area that has a direct correlational effect on both athlete and overall team performance.

On May 30, 2016

Examining Hardiness, Coping and Stress-Related Growth Following Sport Injury

Examining Hardiness, Coping and Stress-Related Growth Following Sport Injury

Salim, J., Wadey, R., & Diss, C. (2015). Examining Hardiness, Coping and Stress-Related Growth Following Sport Injury. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 1-16.

Mentioned articles : Carver, C. S. (1998). Resilience and thriving: Issues, models, and linkages.Journal of social issues, 54(2), 245-266.

Kobasa, S. C. (1979). Stressful life events, personality, and health: an inquiry into hardiness. Journal of personality and social psychology, 37(1), 1.

by Rachel Webb

The goal of this study was to identify and explain why some injured athletes who were high in hardiness would experience stress-related growth, and those with low hardiness were less likely to derive positive benefits from injury (Salim, Wadey, & Diss, 2015). Growth in this context is defined as a positive change that is the result of a demanding event that has propelled an individual to a now higher level of functioning than their original state (Carver, 1998). Demands that have been studied include stressors such as poor performance, car accidents, and family dysfunction, and although these studies support stressful events being used as vehicles to experiencing growth this study works to identify sport-injury as the specific stressor. Injury in sport has shown to be more unique than other life demands because not only can it be a frequent and accepted part of the sport, it also leaves the athlete physically incapacitated unlike other sport-related stressors. This incapacitation can lead to a greater sense of isolation, which can pose a significant threat to athletes’ identity and coping sources. Even further, if we take into account the aspects of a competitive athlete, which suggest preference for physical prowess, emphasize positivity, admiration for taking risks, and tolerating pain, we can see that injury will challenge many of these traits. This psychological demand that comes with the physical injury has been seen as defining the ability to acquire sometime of growth and perspective through the injury experience.

The three dimensions of stress-related growth that this study utilizes in understanding SRG are personal growth, psychologically based performance enhancements, and physical/technical developmental benefits. Based off of a previous study where a positive relationship between hardiness and SRG, there were also two coping strategies found (emotional support and positive reframing) which lead to the implication that athletes with higher hardiness also had higher SRG scores from these when utilizing coping strategies (Kobasa, 1979). These qualities allowed the athletes to have social support for emotional reasons and develop a positive frame for their injury. The authors of this study looked to then develop a more elaborate understanding of the hardiness-SRG relationship. Ultimately it was supported that athletes high in hardiness were able to experience SRG due to the fact that their social networks were able to provide an outlet for their emotions, allowing them to reframe the injury from a stressful event to a perceived challenge to overcome. Not having an emotional outlet was reported to result in a numerous negative outcomes such as athletes suppressing their feelings, expressing inauthentic responses to others, inability to reframe, and increased rumination. All of these aspects attributed to returning to the sport to early, reinjury, or a poor performance. It is well know that the sporting culture may inhibit an athlete from reporting their feelings or using social support due to the idea of being “tough” and what that must look like. This study, like many others challenges this culture, supporting the need to break those barriers in order to experience positive change after a sport-related injury.

On May 30, 2016

Self-talk and competitive sport performance

Self-talk and competitive sport performance

Although the effectiveness of self-talk strategies has been widely reviewed and is gaining more support through this research, there is still a gap when looking at the effects it has on competitive sports. Studies discussed in this article review the multiple facets that self-talk can be most useful in which includes the level of play, the sport, and the type of implementation (Hatzigeorgiadis, Galanis, Zourbanos, & Theodorakis, 2014). The research distinguishes the different types of self-talk that can foster an enhanced motor or fine skills development and the benefits of self-talk on the psychological crisis of choking in performance.

Since there has been only one other study done on self-talk in the competitive realm, this article looks to extend this line of research and investigate the effectiveness of a self-talk intervention program on a competitive sport performance in young swimmers. This will also include the training of self-talk given that there has been more success in training self-talk with the involvement of athletes developing these plans, resulting in an increase intrinsic interest and enhanced motivation. Along with the focus of involving the athlete in developing the plan and key factors in implementing appropriate and adequate training, the theoretical underpinnings that create an effective plan per individual. Ultimately, the environment of competitive sports is complex but this study contributes further to the effectiveness of self-talk strategies that can facilitate an increase in sport performance. Further direction of effective self-talk is reviewed as well as the limitations regarding the added factors of doing a field experiment with less control.

On June 13, 2016

A new theoretical perspective for understanding how coaches learn to coach

A new theoretical perspective for understanding how coaches learn to coach

Werthner, P., & Trudel, P. (2006). A new theoretical perspective for understanding how coaches learn to coach. Sport psychologist, 20(2), 198.
Mentioned: Moon, J.A. (2004). A handbook of reflective and experintial learning: Theory and practice. London: Routledge Falmer

by Rachel Webb
The purpose of the material presented is to more thoroughly investigate the way in which coaches learn how to be coaches. Authors Werthner and Trudel use a new theoretical perspective that looks at a generic view of learning as applied to elite coaches (2006).
Coaches must develop both a sport specific knowledge and a knowledge base about coaching, and the latter has shown to be effected by many aspects. There are two ways to view learning and according to Moon when coaches are subject to viewing learning as a network rather than building up a wall, they will be able to build upon their cognitive structuring rather than taking an inactive role in retaining new coaching information (Moon, 2004). This network is described as the knowledge and emotions resulting in a cognitive structure that represents what the coaches know at any given point in time. This view allows coaches to accept the learning process as a process of changing conceptions rather than an accumulation of information. This research is especially important because this cognitive structure acts as a guide as to what coaches will choose to pay attention to and what they choose to learn.

With that distinction being made the article explores Moon’s views of learning, which includes three types of learning situations that elicit how coaches may develop their coaching perspective and why many of their paths are so distinct. The learning situations range from mediated (formal learning), unmediated (external experiences, and internal learning situation (no new information). The network view of coaches’ learning processes has the potential to provide a way to see coach development from the coaches’ perspective and can increase our ability to understand the particular path of different coaches. This study stresses the importance of how the material is presented to coaches, what the coaches cognitive structure is already made up of, and it draws attention to the ways we can use the three learning situations to foster the development specific to each coach. There are numerous inferences that can now be drawn after this extensive study done on elite coaches. It is important to recognize the support being made for the differences in coaches’ cognitive structures and how their internal experiences will influence what they are learning and choose to incorporate in their coaching down the line.

On June 13, 2016